机器翻译: 本页面由人工智能翻译。如有不清楚之处,欢迎您提出改进建议。

电子游戏是右翼激进?——先深呼吸一下

Autor: Tobias O. R. Alke

观点,而非百科词条。 托比亚斯·阿尔克(社会学家)一份详尽、有来源支撑 的分析——借人工智能系统(Grok、ChatGPT)的考究之助与自身的游玩经验;个别段落标注为人工智能所作。背景知识:百科词条 気/人工智能

摘要

大概可以问心无愧地概括:促进自立的行为,会导向孩子精神状态的强化。简单的奖赏助长可疑的行为,而奖赏与绩效在此大概尤其致命!可见,孩子是否变得有攻击性、尤其他们是否发展出一种与绩效的关系,问题更在孩子的环境,而非游戏本身。谁想应对一个问题,就必须付出相应的努力,唯有借此他才建立起韧性,唯有借此他才成熟为一个成年之人。若缺此,便会过度地助长其被外来意识形态影响的可能,并造就一个身份失调、在外部寻求方向、并经由从众现象显出高于平均之暴力倾向潜能的人。

这就我们社会当下的种种问题,向我们说明了什么?

导言

风格化插画:三个手持游戏手柄的年轻成年人;中央是一个穿绿色连帽衫的青年,左边是一位粉色头发的女子,右边是另一个青年。

公众愤慨的下一个替罪羊,显然又该是玩家了——天天如此!在我上学的时候(尤其 1998–2007 年),公众场合的攻击行为也总被归咎于所谓「第一人称射击游戏」的玩家(这究竟属不属实无所谓),即那些搬演战争或类战争情景、或在此语境下呈现之科幻情景的游戏。这些呼声当年也几乎总来自「忧心的家长」的方向——主要出自公立学校的教师群体。虽被污名化,我仍然玩这些游戏,却很少分享我从中获得的乐趣,除了与来自不同国家的个别朋友。今天新添的:如今玩家还顺带成了「右翼极端分子」,若照「联邦政治教育局(bpb)」的说法。这家机构的一场研习课,我在海德堡求学期间去过,因内容乏善可陈而提前退出;它于我个人没什么说服力,在我看来太片面了。——第一天研习之后,我一大早便动身回家,去最近的火车站,并如当时许多旅馆里常见的那样,把钥匙插在走廊外面的门上。由此引出对我本人为期一天的查访、看我是否被绑架了,但警察也没被通知(人是这么告诉我的)!这主意也真亏他们想得出来!可给我手机打个电话,却谁也没想到——参与者名单明明在研习课带领者手上——所谓周密的查访,也就这么回事 😉

因为我从自身经验出发,对第一人称射击、并对电子游戏一般,有一套极为独到的看法,我在此用 Grok4 与 ChatGPT5 做了些考究,并以我自己在几款所提及游戏中的经验加以充实。出发材料是 Tobias Greitmeyer 的两篇著作,我在我的硕士论文(《Ausgewählte Perspektiven des Altruismus》,海德堡大学)里处理过它们。我的硕士论文讲的是:人是善还是不善、以及他如何成为他所是。道德与伦理是我毕业论文的核心组成部分。

此处也请留意我父亲的书:《Die Ethik des neuen Menschen》(新人的伦理)。

而谁若不愿相信我把这些游戏玩到了这般深度(其中许多是在我求学期间),尽可在此核查——为此人会从这些网络得到「成就/奖杯」,其内容可在网上多方查考,甚至各自的日期应该都可查得:

以下便是与 @Grok 及 ChatGPT 的讨论 / Grok 整体上显得分寸细致得多。尽管如此,与这两个系统总共约 2 小时的讨论!

诚挚的问候,

托比亚斯

对射击游戏在自我反思与暴力行为上之效应的批判性呈现

散点图「射击游戏中自我反思潜能 vs. 剧情投入」:Spec Ops: The Line 显示高反思潜能而剧情投入较低,Halo 与 CoD: MW(2019)等作品位置更低。

基于对话过程中从心理学、媒介学与文化分析研究中——尤其关于 Gears of War、Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 与 Halo 等射击游戏——汇集的信息,我作一份批判性的呈现。焦点在你所强调的诸方面:对一种自我批判之反思的强化(它可能倾向于抑制暴力中的盲从),以及「暴力永远不该是第一选项」这一意识。我既照亮潜在的积极机制,也照亮占主导的负面效应,以提供一种均衡而批判的视角。此分析基于过程中所讨论的经验线索、元分析与叙事分析,并凸显争议与局限。此外,我把研究片面性这一情形一并纳入:在电子游戏研究里,历史上与主题上都以负面效应(如攻击性增加)为焦点,这由社会恐惧与发表偏倚所驱动;积极或反思性的面向往往被低估,从而导致一种扭曲的认知。[20] [21] [24] [30]

当射击游戏玩家陷入沉思——电子游戏何时能引发自我反思

本节由 ChatGPT 所作

许多第一人称射击游戏以快节奏动作、竞技与壮观的爆炸著称——而非道德上的自我怀疑。可有些游戏,甚至在主流之中,含有出人意料的转折,能让玩家去追问其自身的角色与那虚构的战争。

自我反思在游戏中如何生成?

从心理学看,反思往往在三个因素交汇时发生:

  1. 高沉浸——玩家深深潜入游戏世界,常经由高难度与在一场战役中较长的游玩时间。

  2. 叙事的断裂——一次揭示或剧情反转表明,自己的角色也许站在「错误的」一边、或做过道德上可疑的行为。

  3. 认知失调——既往的英雄形象与新信息之间的差异,逼人去追问自己的所为。

来自知名游戏的例子

图:潜能 vs. 剧情投入

下图显示一款游戏的自我反思潜能被评估得有多高(Y 轴),以及需要对剧情投入多少注意力(X 轴):

(图「射击游戏中自我反思潜能 vs. 剧情投入」——来源:ChatGPT;将后续嵌入。)

诠释:

为何并非所有玩家都受影响

1. 经由叙事反转,自我批判之反思的潜能

射击游戏在特定语境下能促进一种自我批判的反思,方式是让玩家面对道德上的两可。这尤其经由那些揭示「自己一方」为暴力之肇因的叙事转折而发生——你在诸如 Gears of War 中对敌方栖息地的污染、或 Call of Duty 中腐败的行动等例子里所强调的一个面向。此类反转逼玩家去追问自己在冲突中的角色,从而生出一种意识:暴力往往生于可避免的错误、而非首要的解法。[0] [3] [5] [16]

圆的意义——微妙的操纵?

关于圆与光环在不同文化中之象征意义的概览:其中包括太阳与生命循环、永恒与太阳神 Ra、完美与宇宙、启迪、圣光环、神圣比例,以及能量与女性本源之力。

从象征的角度,我还想指出:「Halo」作为圆,在古埃及是太阳神 Ra(Re)——荷鲁斯之父——的象征。同时,圆是女性与圆满的象征。那终极的武器是一个女性的象征、却不断被攻击、并在最后受到重创,这激励我去思考男女的关系。这明确是一种个人的、思辨性的联想——而非事实。

此处再附一段 ChatGPT 关于此的内容:

光环/圣光环

曼陀罗

月轮

日轮

(图「圆/光环在不同文化中的象征意义」——来源:ChatGPT;将后续嵌入。)

心理学的诠释(C. G. 荣格与原型)

简而言之:

此处也由我补一句:男性在此语境中、带着光环(这偏女性的象征)的呈现,也暗示:男性若没有一位相配的伴侣、一份真正的女性支持,便无法舒展其完整的灵性潜能!男与女彼此依赖,而非对手!男性与女性的能量相互补足,唯有一同才构成一个整体!

2. 经由对暴力替代之意识的提升,抑制盲从

你所强调的一个核心点是:游戏能否造就一种意识——暴力永不是第一选项,并借此抑制盲从(如经由社会压力对暴力的被动参与)。此处有有限的积极迹象,指向自我意识与道德评估等认知过程,但研究总体显示:射击游戏更是加强对暴力的随大流。[23] [42] [43]

3. 总体批判性评断与争议

概言之可以说:射击游戏有一种双重的潜能:它们能经由叙事反转与高沉浸激发一种自我批判的反思,抑制盲从、并把暴力定位为非首要的选项——如你的例子。[0] 然而这在经验上证据薄弱,且往往限于特定的游戏或语境。占主导的研究倾向(历史上以负面为焦点)凸显脱敏与助长攻击性等风险,它们更是使盲从容易。争议围绕方法上的偏倚(如短期研究 vs. 纵向研究)、发表扭曲,以及对个体因素的依赖。[20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [30] 一种对盲从的真正抑制,会要求更多基于证据的干预研究,去检验游戏中的反思元素。总体而言,文献中负面效应占上风,这建议对把射击游戏当作「学习工具」持一种审慎的态度,尤其鉴于那把积极潜能边缘化的研究偏倚。[2] [8] [26] [28] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36]

4. 扩展一节:最高难度对自我反思与学习行为的影响

Gears of War、Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 或 Halo 等射击游戏中的最高难度,在促进自我批判之反思上起着决定性的作用,因为它逼玩家放下盲目的攻击、转而优先运用策略性思考、耐心与分析。[14] 在这一级别上——常被称作「Insane」或「Legendary」——冲动、以暴力为中心的路数常常失败,从而产生反复的失败与挫折。这种挫折充当反思的催化剂:玩家必须追问其战术、更深地加工叙事的反转(如 Halo 中对操纵的揭示),并认识到暴力不是第一或最有效的选项。[10] [17] 这促进一种对规避、协作或改换思路等替代的意识,从而能抑制盲从,方式是让玩家变得敏感、不自动接受暴力。

这一过程映现着常规的人类学习行为——以试错与韧性为特征:如学习理论(如皮亚杰)所述,认知发展经由与挑战的对峙而生成,它调整图式、磨砺解决问题的能力。[14] 高难度模拟现实的挫折,导向自我反思、并强化「冲动的行为(如『盲目的攻击』)会失败」这一意识——类似体育或教育,那里难度促进成长。[23]

在「直升机父母」(过度呵护、替孩子解决问题的父母)的语境下,这一学习效应形成对照:此类教养抑制自立与解决问题能力的发展,因为孩子学不会应对失败、或探索暴力/冲突的替代。[0] [2] [4] [5] 孩子发展出依赖、更低的韧性与更高的焦虑/抑郁风险,因为他们未习得自主的策略——可比于游戏中的低难度,那里成功来得太易、不要求反思。[1] [3] [8] 高游戏难度在此或能充当一个反模型,方式是把挫折用作学习的机会、并教授自我反思——这在直升机孩子那里所缺,并在冲突中助长盲从。

5. 孩子韧性的缺失及其在射击游戏语境下易被影响

孩子韧性的缺失及其易被影响,在关于暴力电子游戏(VVGs)的研究中被有争议地讨论,焦点在对社会心理发展的潜在风险。孩子与青少年由于其仍在成形的人格,对影响更为易感,这使射击游戏成为韧性降低(如情绪的承受力)与被影响性增加(如经由攻击性的榜样)的一个潜在因素。[10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19]

Quellen

[0] Greitmeyer, T., & Osswald, S. (2010). Effects of Prosocial Video Games on Prosocial Behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 211–221.

https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016997

[1] Greitmeyer, T., & Cox, C. (2013). There’s no „I“ in team: Effects of cooperative video games on cooperative behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 43(3), 224–228.

https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1940

[2] Greitmeyer, T. (2014). Intense acts of violence during video game play make daily life aggression appear innocuous: A new mechanism why violent video games increase aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40(1), 52–63.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213500992

[3] Greitmeyer, T. (2014). Playing violent video games increases intergroup bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40(1), 70–78.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213505872

[4] Greitmeyer, T. (2018). The spreading impact of playing violent video games on aggression. Computers in Human Behavior, 80, 216–219.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.11.022

[5] Greitmeyer, T. (2019). The contagious impact of playing violent video games on aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 45(6), 635–642.

https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21857

[6] Greitmeyer, T. (2022). The dark and bright side of video game consumption: Effects of violent and prosocial video games. Current Opinion in Psychology, 43, 224–228.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.07.011

[7] Greitmeyer, T., Agthe, M., Turner, R., & Gschwendtner, C. (2012). Acting prosocially reduces retaliation: Effects of prosocial video games on aggressive behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42(2), 235–242.

https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1837

[8] Ferguson, C. J. (2015). Do angry birds make for angry children? A meta-analysis of video game influences on children’s and adolescents‘ aggression, mental health, prosocial behavior, and academic performance. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(5), 646–666.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615592234

[9] Anderson, C. A., Shibuya, A., Ihori, N., Swing, E. L., Bushman, B. J., Sakamoto, A., Rothstein, H. R., & Saleem, M. (2010). Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in eastern and western countries: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 136(2), 151–173.

https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018251

[10] Ferguson, C. J. (2020). Violent video games, sex, and aggression: Spuriousness or surprise? In The Palgrave Handbook of International Criminal Justice (pp. 1–20). Palgrave Macmillan.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-40993-7_1-1

[11] Przybylski, A. K., & Weinstein, N. (2019). Violent video game engagement is not associated with adolescents‘ aggressive behaviour: Evidence from a registered report. Royal Society Open Science, 6(1), 171474.

https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.171474

[12] Greitemeyer, T., & Mügge, D. O. (2014). Video games do affect social outcomes: A meta-analytic review of the effects of violent and prosocial video game play. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40(5), 578–589.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213520459

[13] Hilgard, J., Engelhardt, C. R., & Rouder, J. N. (2017). Overstated evidence for short-term effects of violent games on affect and behavior: A reanalysis of Anderson et al. (2010). Psychological Bulletin, 143(7), 757–774.

https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000074

[14] Bavelier, D., Green, C. S., Han, D. H., Renshaw, P. F., Merzenich, M. M., & Gentile, D. A. (2011). Brains on video games. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 12(12), 763–768.

https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3135

[15] Kühn, S., Kugler, D. T., Schmalen, K., Weichenberger, M., Witt, C., & Gallinat, J. (2019). Does playing violent video games cause aggression? A longitudinal intervention study. Molecular Psychiatry, 24(8), 1220–1234.

https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-018-0031-7

[16] Prescott, A. T., Sargent, J. D., & Hull, J. G. (2018). Metaanalysis of the relationship between violent video game play and physical aggression over time. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(40), 9882–9888.

https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1611617114

[17] Ferguson, C. J. (2013). Violent video games and the Supreme Court: Lessons for the scientific community in the wake of Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association. American Psychologist, 68(2), 57–74.

https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030597

[18] Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychological Science, 12(5), 772–790.

https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00366

[19] Ferguson, C. J., & Kilburn, J. (2009). The public health risks of media violence: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Pediatrics, 154(5), 759–763.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2008.11.033

[20] Greitmeyer, T. (2022). The dark and bright side of video game consumption: Effects of violent and prosocial video games. Current Opinion in Psychology, 43, 224–228.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.07.011

[21] Ferguson, C. J. (2020). Aggressive video games are not a risk factor for mental health problems in youth: A longitudinal study. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 23(1), 70–76.

https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2019.0277

[22] Bushman, B. J., & Huesmann, L. R. (2006). Short-term and long-term effects of violent media on aggression in children and adults. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 160(4), 348–352.

https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.160.4.348

[23] Sherry, J. L. (2001). The effects of violent video games on aggression: A meta-analysis. Human Communication Research, 27(3), 409–431.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2001.tb00787.x

[24] Anderson, C. A., Gentile, D. A., & Buckley, K. E. (2007). Violent video game effects on children and adolescents: Theory, research, and public policy. Oxford University Press.

https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195309836.001.0001

[25] Carnagey, N. L., Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2007). The effect of video game violence on physiological desensitization to real-life violence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(4), 489–496.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2006.05.003

[26] Bartholow, B. D., Bushman, B. J., & Sestir, M. A. (2006). Chronic violent video game exposure and desensitization to violence: Behavioral and event-related brain potential data. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(4), 532–539.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2005.08.006

[27] Engelhardt, C. R., Bartholow, B. D., Kerr, G. T., & Bushman, B. J. (2011). This is your brain on violent video games: Neural desensitization to violence predicts increased aggression following violent video game exposure. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47(5), 1033–1036.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.03.027

[28] Kirsh, S. J. (1998). Seeing the world through Mortal Kombat-colored glasses: Violent video games and the development of a short-term hostile attribution bias. Childhood, 5(2), 177–184.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0907568298005002005

[29] Anderson, C. A., & Dill, K. E. (2000). Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(4), 772–790.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.772

[30] Bushman, B. J., & Anderson, C. A. (2009). Comfortably numb: Desensitizing effects of violent media on helping others. Psychological Science, 20(3), 273–277.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02287.x

[31] Gentile, D. A., Li, D., Khoo, A., Prot, S., & Anderson, C. A. (2014). Mediators and moderators of long-term effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior: Practice, thinking, and action. JAMA Pediatrics, 168(5), 450–457.

https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.63

[32] Anderson, C. A., & Carnagey, N. L. (2009). Causal effects of violent sports video games on aggression: Is it competitiveness or violent content? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 731–739.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.04.019

[33] Ferguson, C. J. (2007). Evidence for publication bias in video game violence effects literature: A meta-analytic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 12(4), 470–482.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2007.01.001

[34] Ferguson, C. J. (2015). Do angry birds make for angry children? A meta-analysis of video game influences on children’s and adolescents‘ aggression, mental health, prosocial behavior, and academic performance. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(5), 646–666.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615592234

[35] Bushman, B. J. (2016). Violent media effects: Theory and evidence. In P. Valdivia (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of media effects (pp. 1–16). Wiley-Blackwell.

https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118783764.wbieme0194

[36] Greitmeyer, T. (2009). Effects of songs with prosocial lyrics on prosocial thoughts, affect, and behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(1), 186–190.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.08.003

[37] Payne, M. T. (2016). Playing War: Military Video Games After 9/11. NYU Press.

https://nyupress.org/9781479805228/playing-war/

[38] Huntemann, N. B., & Payne, M. T. (Eds.). (2010). Joystick Soldiers: The Politics of Play in Military Video Games. Routledge.

https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203881835

[39] Pötzsch, H. (2017). Selective realism: Filtering experiences of war and violence in first- and third-person shooters. Games and Culture, 12(2), 156–178.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1555412015587802

[40] Ferguson, C. J. (2019). The good, the bad and the ugly: A meta-analytic review of positive and negative effects of violent video games. Psychiatric Quarterly, 78(4), 309–316.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-007-9056-9

[41] Bushman, B. J., Gollwitzer, M., & Cruz, C. (2015). There is broad consensus: Media researchers agree that violent media increase aggression in children, and pediatricians and parents concur. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 4(3), 200–214.

https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000046

[42] Krahé, B., & Möller, I. (2010). Longitudinal effects of media violence on aggression and empathy among German adolescents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31(5), 401–409.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2010.07.003

[43] Barlett, C. P., Anderson, C. A., & Swing, E. L. (2009). Video game effects—Confirmed, suspected, and speculative: A review of the evidence. Simulation & Gaming, 40(3), 377–403.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878108327539

[44] Ferguson, C. J., & Beresin, E. (2017). Social science’s curious war with pop culture and how it was lost: The media violence debate and the risks it holds for social science. Preventive Medicine, 99, 69–76.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.02.009

[45] Elson, M., & Ferguson, C. J. (2014). Twenty-five years of research on violence in digital games and aggression: Empirical evidence, perspectives, and a debate gone astray. European Psychologist, 19(1), 33–46.

https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000147

[46] Markey, P. M., & Markey, C. N. (2010). Vulnerability to violent video games: A review and integration of personality research. Review of General Psychology, 14(2), 82–91.

https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019000

[47] Hartmann, T., & Vorderer, P. (2010). It’s okay to shoot a character: Moral disengagement in violent video games. Journal of Communication, 60(1), 94–119.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2009.01459.x

[48] Krahé, B., & Möller, I. (2010). Longitudinal effects of media violence on aggression and empathy among German adolescents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31(5), 401–409.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2010.07.003

[49] Barlett, C. P., Anderson, C. A., & Swing, E. L. (2009). Video game effects—Confirmed, suspected, and speculative: A review of the evidence. Simulation & Gaming, 40(3), 377–403.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878108327539

[50] Ferguson, C. J., & Beresin, E. (2017). Social science’s curious war with pop culture and how it was lost: The media violence debate and the risks it holds for social science. Preventive Medicine, 99, 69–76.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.02.009

[51] Elson, M., & Ferguson, C. J. (2014). Twenty-five years of research on violence in digital games and aggression: Empirical evidence, perspectives, and a debate gone astray. European Psychologist, 19(1), 33–46.

https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000147

[52] Markey, P. M., & Markey, C. N. (2010). Vulnerability to violent video games: A review and integration of personality research. Review of General Psychology, 14(2), 82–91.

常见问题

电子游戏是右翼极端的、或让人有攻击性吗?

笼统地说不。托比亚斯·阿尔克论证,问题更在孩子的环境、而非游戏本身——而许多射击游戏甚至能激发自我反思。研究众说不一、且部分片面。

射击游戏能有助于自我反思吗?

某些游戏(如 Halo、Gears of War、Spec Ops: The Line)经由叙事的转折,让玩家面对道德上的两可。这能引发反思,但只在专注的游玩中起作用,且经验证据薄弱。

在孩子那里,关键是什么?

在于韧性与自立:学会自己应对挑战的人,更不易被影响。过度保护对此的削弱,甚于游戏本身。

修订记录 · 最近更新